Week 4: Chapters 14-17

Section 4: Human Performance Technology Due: 11/28

Not all solutions to learning and/or performance require an instructional one. Many times a non-instructional approach is the better solution. This week's posting concentrates on human performance, electronic performance support systems, the use of knowledge management systems, and the concept of informal learning.

1. Chapter 14 discusses the concept of the evolution of human performance improvement. Several sections of chapter 14 present a variety of non instructional solutions to performance problems. Identify a performance problem in your area of work and provide a non instructional solution to solve the problem.

The school I teach at received an unacceptable rating in 2008, based on students’ performance on the science portion of the TAKS test. Over the last two years, the district has implemented a standardized curriculum and begun frequent monitoring of both student and teacher performance. The science and math scores, which have traditionally been the two weakest areas, have improved. English scores, which have always been the strongest area, have declined slightly during this same time period. Administrators want to stop this decline before it goes further.

To solve this issue, I believe the best way to go is to compile test data from the previous two years. Once the data is compiled, a committee should be formed to conduct analysis. This committee should include at least one administrator, the English department head, and one or two English faculty members. The committee should look specifically at which questions were most frequently missed, and then correlate those questions to specific TEKS objectives. The data analysis would then affect instructional design, since teachers would be able to target the objectives for re-teaching.

2. Chapter 15 presents several definitions of electronic performance support systems. In addition to these definitions, locate a few more and indicate your preference explaining why you prefer it. Additionally, describe why you believe EPSS have not been widely used and if they are more likely be become more prevalent in the future.

Desrosiers, S.M. & Harmon, S.W. (1996). Performance support systems for education and training: Could this be the next generation? In M.L. Bailey and M.J. Jones (Eds.) Selected Papers from the Fifth Annual LEPS Research Symposium: Technology, Education, and Work. Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University.

The definition I like best defines an EPSS as "a system that provides the user with information, guidance, and learning experiences wherever and whenever a user needs it.” I like this definition because it’s very simple and straightforward, but still describes the EPSS’s functionality (“information, guidance, and learning experiences”) and utility (“wherever and whenever…needed”).

I think EPSSs have had limited use so far is due to the complexity of designing and developing them, as well as the cost (in both money and man-hours). Also, some organizations may have trouble distinguishing between an EPSS and computer-based training systems; they may feel that moving to a more elaborate system will not provide a good return on their investment when they already have something in place. I believe they will become more prevalent as technology becomes even more embedded in business and in society. Simple tasks are now routinely performed by computers and/or workers in other countries where jobs are outsourced, leaving the more complex tasks to be performed by workers here. As these tasks become even more complex, I believe EPSSs will be utilized to provide a one-stop resource.

3. Knowledge management is the way we manage information, share that information, and use it. Organizations, such as schools, are full of information/data and we must organize that data in a way that we can make sense of it. We use data to make decisions and good data=good decision making. Identify a real or hypothetical problem in your line of work. How might a blended learning approach, including the use of a knowledge management system, be use to solve the problem?

To maintain a valid certificate, teachers are required to accrue 150 hours of professional development every five years. It can come from a variety of sources, such as reading professional publications, participating in staff development activities on campus and/or online workshops, and taking college courses. However, I think developing a centralized KMS where teachers can access professional development resources, lesson plans, classroom management strategies, and other beneficial information would be a powerful tool. I subscribe to several different nings that focus on various topics. While I have gotten great information from them, I would love to have one central source that I could access when I need information. I wouldn’t want to see the KMS replace more traditional face-to-face professional development activities; however, I would like to see more high quality face-to-face sessions, as I have attended several only to leave with little or no useful information I could apply in my own classroom.

4. Describe the types of informal learning you have been exposed to in your adult life. What as the purpose? What was the experience like? Was it engaging? Social? What role did you play? What role did the instructor play?

I’ve attended museums for various events—my favorites are the Georgia O’Keefe exhibit I saw at the Dallas Museum of Art and the Monet exhibit I saw at the Fort Worth Museum of Art. Those experiences involved listening to a recorded lecture or a docent who served as a guide for the exhibit. To be honest, I didn’t find those informal learning situations very engaging. In a large crowd, it can be hard to hear the docent, and often I wasn’t able to see the artwork until the group was moving to the next piece, which meant that I missed what the docent had to say about it.

I’ve experienced a lot of on the job training (and still am). I find this kind of informal learning to be much more engaging, because it’s generally for a specific purpose, something I’m going to use to perform my job. In my experience, the “instructor” and “student” roles are a little more understated in this type of situation. It’s more like information sharing to me, and the instructor is more of a guide than a teacher.

Week 3: Chapters 10-13

Section 3: Evaluating, Implementing and Managing Instructional Programs and Projects Due: 11/21

All too often instruction is developed with little thought as to how evaluation of learning will occur, or the evaluation of the effectiveness of the instruction. Evaluation is usually an afterthought - an add on. It's time to start thinking about evaluation on the front end of the instructional design process.

Additionally, there is resistance to the adoption of technological innovations and we must develop an understanding of why and how to facilitate the adoption of innovations with an understanding of why there is resistance.

For this week's reflection activities, I would like for you to concentrate on the following:

1. Chapter 10 discusses evaluation in instructional design and provides you with two evaluation models, the CIPP and Kirkpatrick models for evaluation. Search for at least two other models used for evaluation and summarize these models. Describe how you would use them to evaluate your instruction.

I first researched the Smith and Ragan model for summative assessment. I have listed the steps of this model, followed by how I would implement it to evaluate my instruction.

· Determine goals of evaluation – What do I want to find out as a result of this evaluation—for example, “Did my students master how to determine meter in poetry?”

· Select indicators of success – What specific details will be used to determine whether or not the instruction was successful

· Select orientation of evaluation – Quantitative or qualitative data

· Select design of evaluation – Determine what data will be collected, when the data will be collected, and the conditions under which data should be collected in order to answer the evaluation questions

· Design or select evaluation measures – Include several different categories to measure the success of the instruction.

· Collect data – Conduct the actual evaluation

· Analyze data - Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, range, frequency) or inferential statistics (differences between two instructional programs or from pretest to posttest within the same program)

· Report results

The second model I researched was the Flagg model for formative assessment. This model includes the following steps:

· Needs assessment – Determine the reason for the instructional program;

· Pre-production formative evaluation – Utilize target audience and teachers to make design decisions about content, objectives, and production formats

· Production formative evaluation – revise the instructional program based on target group feedback

· Implementation formative evaluation – Determine how well the instructional program operates with target learners in the environment for which it was designed via field-testing

2. Think about a technological innovation within your social system that was recently introduced (social system = place of work, home, etc.). Any innovation has what is known as perceived attributes - relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability. Describe these attributes of the innovation and which of the attributes assisted and/or hindered adoption of the innovation. For example, was it not compatible with the existing beliefs of the system or was it overly complex to use or understand?

The technological innovation that came to mind for me was my school’s adoption of the C-Scope curriculum program. It was actually implemented last year, but core subject teachers had the option of using it or not. This year, however, all core subject teachers are required to use it.

Perceived attributes of the C-Scope system are as follows:

· Relative advantage – The main benefit of switching to the C-Scope system was that it would provide a standard curriculum for all teachers to follow. It would also clearly identify the specificity to which teachers should teach concepts.

· Compatibility – The C-Scope system was presented to teachers as a tool that would help align curriculum from 9^th through 12^th grade. It was also presented as a way to ensure that all TEKS were being covered in order to prepare students for the TAKS tests. Since the high school had previously received an “Unacceptable” rating (due to math and science scores), this was a major point in favor of adopting the system.

· Complexity – The C-Scope system was presented as being very simple to use and extremely user friendly. In addition to example lessons, the system also contained handouts and assessments that could be utilized to evaluate mastery of the material being presented.

· Trialability – The 2009-2010 school year was basically the trial period for the C-Scope system. Math and science teachers were required to use it, while it was optional for English and social studies teachers.

· Observability – The school’s 2010 TAKS scores were improved in the areas of math and science, resulting in an “Academically Acceptable” rating for the school. District and campus administrators credited the increase in scores to the successful implementation of the C-Scope system and made the decision to require all core subject teachers to use the system for the 2010-2011 school year.

Many of the teachers at my school are very unhappy with the C-Scope system. In my department, we have noted that the assessments are very poorly written. Many questions are somewhat ambiguous or have more than one option which could be correct. Also, we have noted that the assessments often include questions that do not relate to the TEKS specified for the unit. The biggest problem that my department colleagues and I have with the C-Scope system is that the English portion is not yet complete!! As you can imagine, this makes it very difficult to successfully implement the system. Other complaints include the fact that topics are only covered superficially (even though they will be on the TAKS test), and the pacing calendar leaves almost no time for creativity or for re-teaching if needed.

3. Chapter's 12 & 13 focus on project management and how to manage projects when resources are scarce. You have been assigned to develop a series of professional development sessions focusing on technology use in the classroom for teachers. How will you use Situational Leadership to facilitate this project?

To use Situational Leadership for this project, I would:

• Define and describe the group tasks.
• Determine the competence and commitment levels for each group member. This will ensure that all group members have the skills and the motivation they need to complete their assigned tasks.
• Choose a leadership style that is appropriate for the development levels of my group members. Determine if the group members need more direction and oversight or can be allowed more autonomy and freedom.
• Communicate with all group members to ensure that everyone is on the same page with regard to the tasks and the overall project.
• Stay in contact with group members as they complete each assigned task.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of my leadership style to ensure consistency and effectiveness.

Week 2: Chapters 4-9

Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

(I have to say that I was somewhat surprised that Gardner's Multiple Intelligences theory was not discussed.)

• Identify a specific learning goal and how you would incorporate two learning theories highlighted in Chapter 4 to achieve this goal.

In teaching my students how to write a well-organized critical essay about a piece of literature, I would incorporate the following learning theories:

Constructivism

The textbook lists four requirements that constructivist-based learning environments should have. The learning environment should:

· Engage learners in activities that are authentic to the specific discipline. To meet this requirement, I would begin by teaching my students the basic fundamentals of literary criticism. The first step would be to introduce terminology and provide examples. Next, I would have the students read passages and find their own examples in the text. Once they were able to “talk the talk,” I would introduce short writing assignments including a variety of literary criticism elements. At the same time, I would begin teaching and/or reviewing composition, discussing organization, audience, thesis statements, etc. Once the students demonstrated mastery of the shorter assignments, I would gradually increase the length of the finished product until the students were able to write a 2-3 page critical essay (or more, if they were Pre-AP students).

· Provide for collaboration / engage multiple perspectives. I would use a combination of peer editing workshops and individual student conferences to provide feedback on students’ drafts.

· Support learners in goal-setting / self-regulation of learning. I would begin by surveying the students about the composition strategies they use (i.e., the process they use when writing an essay). The initial writing assignments would provide me with a baseline about their writing capabilities. I would also ask them for feedback on specific parts of the process that they struggle with; this would allow me to address the most common concerns and provide the students with a goal: “I want to get better at writing introductions and thesis sentences.” Once goals were set, I could then get ongoing progress reports from the students from discussions during the individual student conferences, as well as from my observations and assessment of their writing assignments. This could be useful in spotting issues—for example, if a student feels that he/she has become proficient at using embedded quotations, but I don’t see proficiency when I grade his/her assignments.

· Encourage learner reflection. This could be accomplished in the individual student conferences with the progress reports. I could also ask students to assess their own progress, and I could ask students to tell me (in a paragraph or a full page) one thing they have learned.

Cognitive Information Processing Theory

This theory is based on the idea of three memory systems (sensory, short-term, and long-term) that deal with patterns, connections, and retention.

For the sensory memory system, the key is teaching students to recognize patterns; I would use a variety of strategies for this area, especially modeling (analysis or organization) and drills (grammar or vocabulary). For the short-term memory system, I would continue the drills, but also require the students to connect the new information with other previously acquired information. For the long-term memory system, I would utilize authentic assessment (the essay itself) and multiple examples during discussions.

• Find a reference (other than the book) that describes Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Then create a table or chart that compares and contrasts those events with the first principles described in chapter 7 and describe how you would apply each of the first principles to the goal you've developed from the first activity in this reflection.

(First Principles are in the row of the Events that I believe they most closely correlate to. The words in parentheses in the Gagne column are my one word summations of each of the Events.)

First Principles	Gagne
	Gaining attention (focus)
	Inform objective (expectancy)
Activation	Stimulating recall (reminder)
Demonstration	Present stimulus (content)
	Guiding learning (encoding)
Application	Eliciting performance (practice)
	Providing feedback (correction)
Integration	Assessing performance (evaluation)
	Enhancing retention (extension)

I would apply the First Principles to my goal of students writing well-organized critical essays like this:

· Activation – Connect the fundamental terminology and concepts to previous lessons or provide recognizable examples. Pre-reading activities could also be used.

· Demonstration –I would model the stages of the writing process, from pre-writing through the final draft.

· Application –I would have the students write critical essays that include the fundamental elements of critical analysis.

· Integration –I would have the students tell me what they have learned in a reflection activity (either oral or written).

• Develop a new goal or using the one you've already developed, briefly describe how you might use the whole-task approach, scaffolding, and mathemagenic methods to help students learn to perform a task.

I used the same goal for this question: students will write a well-organized critical essay about a piece of literature.

I think to implement the whole-task approach for this goal, I would just assign the students to write. Then, in repeated revisions, we would cover the fundamentals of grammar and composition. This is the reverse of my earlier process, where I would start with the fundamentals and build up to writing the essay. I can see advantages and disadvantages to this approach. I’ve noticed that my students tend to pay closer attention when they know what the big picture is. It’s like they don’t want to even start putting the jigsaw puzzle together unless they can see the picture on the box to know what it will look like when they’re finished. But I think this approach could be frustrating or overwhelming for some students—“I can’t even spell, and you expect me to write an essay?! Yeah, right!!!”

It’s harder to apply some of the mathemagenic methods to this goal (writing an essay). Random sequencing doesn’t work as well here, because there needs to be a progression of skills (to some extent). Asking leading questions during learning fits perfectly, and not just for essay writing. I use this method when my classes discuss a literary work. I ask the students questions that require them to use higher level thinking skills from Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Scaffolding methods can also be used easily with this goal. The first thing that comes to mind is modeling the process, walking the students through what I would do from brainstorming to writing to revising and editing.

• Finally, after completing these activities, discuss the benefits of engaging in design research.

I think the main benefit of design research is that the instructor can obtain a wide variety of techniques that can be used—in other words, it puts more tools in the toolbox. If one type of instruction is not working for a given group of students, the instructor can simply move to another type. It also allows for greater flexibility within a group of students; they do not all learn the same way, so what works for one may not (and probably won’t) work for all. Knowing a variety of techniques allows for more differentiation.

Week 1: Chapters 1-3

The first three chapters of your textbook focus on defining the field and provide a rationale for the name of the book. Address the following activities in your blog:

1. Reflect on the definitions the book has provided and develop your own definition as it relates to your work environment.

The thing that struck me as I looked at the various definitions of instructional technology is seeing how both the term and the field have both evolved—from media to process to theory and practice.

My definition of instructional technology is the practices, theories, and materials used in the creation of a curriculum, lessons, and activities that will facilitate student learning. I include practices and theories because I look at them as innovations. Materials can include anything from state of the art computers and projectors to old school items like paper and pen and a chalkboard (I have an actual chalkboard in my classroom. I tell my students it’s a relic!). Materials can also include the students themselves—I remember being in beginner band clapping rhythms.

2. Next, study the Dick, Carey and Carey model of instructional design. Redesign the model excluding and/or adding components as needed. Describe how the model adheres to the six characteristics of instructional design and how it fits in your work environment relating to your definition of instructional design.

One change I would make to the Dick, Carey, and Carey instructional design model is to include the “Revise instruction” step as a regular part of the model instead of an as needed step. In my three years of teaching, I have found that I continually have to revise my instruction (sometimes the whole strategy, other times just parts of it). I would also add an as needed step for reteaching, as that is an important part of the process.

SIX CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Instructional design:

1. Is learner centered. Each step of this model focuses on the students—what their needs are, how they learn best, how they will demonstrate that learning.

2. Is goal oriented. The first step in this model is to identify goals by assessing the needs of the students.

3. Focuses on meaningful performance. The final step of this model is to evaluate overall student performance. Both formative and summative evaluations are included.

4. Assumes outcomes can be measured in a reliable and valid way. I think that using both formative and summative assessments ensures the reliability and validity of the measurements. Formative evaluations work differently from summative evaluations, but both assessments measure student performance.

5. Is empirical, iterative, and self-correcting. This model allows for data collection at multiple stages in the process, which means it is iterative. It includes formative assessment, which is empirical.

6. Typically is a team effort. This could include a team of teachers (from one mentor and one mentee to an entire department). I also believe that it could mean a team of teacher and students. I frequently refine my instructional strategies based on feedback from my students.

I think instructional design is basically the road map for guiding students through the learning process. (Unfortunately, not all students are willing passengers!) Instructional technology is the vehicle my students and I use to get there.

3. And finally, in chapter 3, there is discussion on how the internet and World Wide Web will have a major influence on the way instruction is delivered to learners. Based on what you know about these technological innovations combined with what you have read about the history of instructional films, television, the computer and more, discuss how technology is generally used in the field of education and how you foresee technology being used in the future in the following areas: K12 Education, Higher Education and Adult Education (continuing education). For example, think about how we are using the blog to capture learning in higher education. How could it be used in K12?

I think the field of educational technology is constantly evolving, and it also triggers evolution in teaching methodology. Today, in addition to subject-specific TEKS, there are Technology Applications Standards. Teaching computer skills is no longer limited to programming or business classes. Virtually every subject (and especially the core subjects) incorporates technology use. My school subscribes to Channel One, a news network specifically designed for students. Sometimes one of the stories they see during the 5 minute daily newscast will spark discussion. Better yet, sometimes the students connect a news story to some literary piece we’ve read. I can imagine that Channel One would be an even more effective tool in a social studies class.

Blogs could be used in a K-12 setting in several ways. A teacher might use a blog to keep parents updated on what’s going on in the classroom. A high school English teacher can use a blog to continue class discussions and check understanding of literary works. Virtual drop boxes could be set up to allow students to submit assignments remotely; this would be very useful when students are absent the day an essay is due. Chat rooms and webcams could be used to allow students to interact with peers in another city, another state, or even another country, giving them an opportunity to experience another culture. Distance learning allows students to learn in the comfort of their own homes.

I think technology will become an even more integral part of classrooms of the future. Computers are here to stay. Unfortunately, due to budget constraints, there is a large disparity among school districts (and among schools within a district in some cases) with the amount of technology that is available for use. Students in districts without much technology will lag behind students who have more access.